Criminal justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Criminal justice - Essay Example There is also a newer classification which is the National Incident-Based Reporting System or NIBRS which is an upgraded version of the UCR (Samaha, 2006). These systems are all very different. They range from random-sampling based surveys to the more tangible nationwide percentage surveys. The more popular of all of then is the Uniform Crime Reports as conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). This is the first to be cited in crime reporting statistics because it is based on actual data gathered throughout the country annually. The others, being primarily based on sample populations taken at random reasonably yields a more vague assumption when it comes to results. Statistically, they have a higher rate when it comes to margin of error. We can actually classify crime reporting measuring systems into two logical kinds, the official crime statistics and the unofficial crime statistics. They are also gathered at different stages (Wold & Weis). I find that the official rep orts are more useful because they are based on actual data. Over time this system has transformed and included other types of more specialized data such as the Hate Crime Statistics and the Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted (Federal Bureau of Investigation). It’s newest addition, the NIBRS is a more fine-tuned version of the older UCR.

E-Services in Cambodia Essay Example for Free

E-Services in Cambodia Essay The day length varies from 11 hours 29 minutes to 12 hours 48 minutes without twilight. Mean maximum and minimum temperature range among 30 to 36 °C and 21 to 25 °C respectively. Annual rainfall is 1,343 mm mostly during May to November. The national economy of Cambodia similar to many other developing countries are largely based on agriculture and income-earning opportunities. 90% of Cambodian population makes its living from agriculture. Agricultural development becomes important not only for food and livelihood security of the rural families, but also as a support for industrial progress. Most of Cambodian farmers are poor and live under extreme agroecological, socioeconomic constraints and fear of unrest of war. The poor farmers with small and scattered holdings are surviving on rain fed, mono cropped and rice based farming. Cambodia is rice exported country of mid 1960s has now annual shortage of about 50 000-70 000 tons. Out of exported rice, Cambodia has also exported many agricultural products such as timbers, fish, maize, rubbers, soybean, ground nuts, sesame, jute, cotton and tobacco. These products have been used very low by Cambodian people, because of lacking technology and facilities to improve qualities for food consumption. Agricultural sector in Cambodia contributes about 45 percent to the GDP, and more than 80 percent of the population earns their livings from the agriculture. Apparently, a process of agricultural development is considered to be an effective approach to promote the economic growth with a broadest possible base. Nonetheless, the development of this sector is mainly constrained due to the exceptionally low productivity if compared with the neighboring countries. Research on agricultural development in developing countries has clearly shown that the fundamental problem of agricultural growth is an agricultural education as it plays a vital role in providing qualified manpower for agricultural requirements and conducting agricultural research, thus providing farmers with new techniques of production and new input. Indeed, innovation of technology and management capacities for more intensive and modernized griculture becomes paramount to maximize agricultural output to ensure food security and to alleviate rural poverty in the country. Needless to say, this can be accomplished through the upgrading of human resources employed in the sector at a ll levels from the basic education to higher education. Cambodia has two rice crops each year, a monsoon-season crop (long-cycle) and a dry-season crop. The major monsoon crop is planted in late May through July, when the first rains of the monsoon season begin to inundate and soften the land. Rice shoots are transplanted from late June through September. The main harvest is usually gathered six months later, in December. The dry-season crop is smaller, and it takes less time to grow (three months from planting to harvest). It is planted in November in areas that have trapped or retained part of the monsoon rains, and it is harvested in January or February. The dry-season crop seldom exceeds 15 percent of the total annual production. The per-hectare rice yield in Cambodia is among the lowest in Asia. The average yield for the wet crop is about 0. 95 ton of unmilled rice per hectare. The dry-season crop yield is traditionally higher, 1. 8 tons of unmilled rice per hectare. New rice varieties (IR36 and IR42) have much higher yields, between five and six tons of unmilled rice per hectare under good conditions. Unlike local strains, however, these varieties require a fair amount of urea and phosphate fertilizer (25,000 tons for 5,000 tons of seed), which the government could not afford to import in the late 1980s. The main secondary crops in the late 1980s were maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, groundnuts, soybeans, sesame seeds, dry beans, and rubber. According to Phnom Penh, the country produced 92,000 tons of corn (maize), as well as 100,000 tons of cassava, about 34,000 tons of sweet potatoes, and 37,000 tons of dry beans in 1986. In 1987 local officials urged residents of the different agricultural regions of the country to step up the cultivation of subsidiary food crops, particularly of starchy crops, to make up for the rice deficit caused by a severe drought. Animal husbandry has been an essential part of Cambodian economic life, but a part that farmers have carried on mostly as a sideline. Traditionally, draft animals water buffalo and oxen have playe a crucial role in the preparation of rice fields for cultivation. In 1979 the decreasing number of draft animals hampered agricultural expansion. In 1967 there were 1. 2 million head of draft animals; in 1979 there were only 768,000. Cambodias preferred source of protein is freshwater fish, caught mainly from the Tonle Sap and from the Tonle Sab, the Mekong, and the Basak rivers. Cambodians eat it fresh, salted, smoked, or made into fish sauce and paste. A fishing program, developed with Western assistance, was very successful in that it more than quadrupled the output of inland freshwater fish in three years, from 15,000 tons in 1979 to 68,700 tons in 1982, a peak year. After leveling off, output declined somewhat, dipping to 62,000 tons in 1986. The 1986 total was less than half the prewar figure of some 125,000 tons a year. Saltwater fishing was less developed, and the output was insignificant, less than 10 percent of the total catch. According to the First Plan, fisheries were projected to increase their annual output to 130,000 metric tons by 1990. II. Potentiality of paddy production in Cambodia Paddy Production Wet rice is a unique crop in many ways: It is a traditional, reliable and appreciated stable food †¢ It provides a livelihood for many people (for example some 75 percent of the people living in the Lower Mekong Basin) †¢ It can grow in places that are unsuited for other crops, including waterlogged or inundat ed areas †¢ It can be stored for months or years, if need be †¢ It is rather robust towards pests, and very robust towards weeds †¢ It can be raised within the period of a monsoon rainfall Water for cultivation Having developed in a context of abundant water availability, traditional wet rice cultivation is not water-efficient at all. Production of 1 kg milled rice can require the availability (if not consumption) of 3-6 m3 of water, including various losses and return flows. The monsoon rainfall in Cambodia, where most paddy fields are rain fed, with others supplied by seasonal flood water, and/or from irrigation. The seasonal variation is rather predictable, but the cultivation has adapted so closely that small deviations from the normal pattern can have a significant effects. This is particularly the case for the small dry season, a dry spell of perhaps around a couple of weeks not long after the onset of the wet season. A protracted and severe small dry season after transplanting can seriously affect the annual rain fed crop. 2. The traditional cultivation systems a. Rain fed rice cultivation -The cropping system Rain fed rice cultivation is linked to the rainfall. Over the centuries, the timing and duration of the cultivation cycle have adjusted accordingly, depending on local soil conditions. Due to uncertain rainfall, risk aversion is a strong consideration in choice of technology and in technological innovation for rain fed lowland rice. Traditionally, seeds are produced simply by retaining a portion of the harvest. Better seeds can make a visible difference, both regarding yield and robustness, but must be bought from the good seed keepers in the local area at intervals of a few years. Also, fertilizers can highly improve both the yield and the resilience of the crops. However, the opportunity for its application depends on the rainfall. The size of the land holding is important to the viability of cultivation of rice as well as many other crops. Land holdings in Cambodia tend to be minimal. One among other reasons is the increasing population combined with generation shifts. The farming system Traditional farming systems provide a balance between the availability of land, water and labor, in response to household needs and market demands. Paddy cultivation is highly labor-intensive during transplanting and harvest, but less so in other periods, and not at all outside the cultivation season. Therefore, it can conveniently be combined with other occupations. A traditional Cambodian farming system would comprise paddy cultivation, livestock and palm sugar production. Todays farming systems can be more diverse. Examples of their elements are, A typical Cambodian cultivated landscape is recognised by its sugar palms. A sugar palm can produce 25-50 kg sugar per season (which is 5-7 months), providing a supplementary occupation and cash income. Trees that are unproductive for sugar can supply leaves for thatch-making, mats or rice bins, and can eventually be used for construction and fuelwood. Sugar production is labor-intensive and can compete with Labor for other purposes. Also, it requires fuelwood. It is regarded as a hard way to earn an income and is now in decline. The agricultural value generation Cultivation generates a substantial value upstream and downstream of the farm level, in connection with production and supply of inputs, and processing and distribution of outputs. Rice milling is capital-intensive and is provided by speciali zed operators outside the village. The millers often serve as wholesale buyers. They may provide loans to the farmers with the next crop as collateral, or the rice can simply be sold some time before it is harvested. Few Asian paddy farmers have direct access to (or exposure to) an open market. Some countries see a rather monopolized distribution at the wholesale level. Many governments try to square the circle between appropriate revenue at the farm level and affordable food to the urban poor, applying gentle or more strict regulation of trade and/or prices. Conditions can be quite different for crops other than rice an aspect that can favor a certain crop diversification. b. Irrigated rice cultivation The cropping system Small parts of rain fed rice areas have irrigation or supplementary irrigation. A higher reliability of access to water reduces a major risk and provides opportunities for innovation, provided that technology, skills and inputs are available. This requires coordination of the development of irrigation services and agricultural education and services. Where raw water is available for dry season irrigation, it becomes possible to raise two (or perhaps even three) crops per year an obvious opportunity, so much more because the dry season yield is much higher that the wet season yield (due to the higher sunlight radiation from clear skies). A shift from one to two crops require a shift from long-duration to medium- or short duration varieties. For example, a medium-duration variety can be grown in the wet season and a short-duration variety in the dry season. The farming system Sharing an irrigation system requires an even stronger collaboration than rain fed cultivation, and ability to collaborate is one of the several success criteria for new systems. Farmers Water User Communities (FWUCs) are promoted by Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM) in support of de-central support to operation and maintenance. Some of these work well, while many others are in need of consolidation, faced with complex new challenges and a need of close collaboration. If water is available but sparse in the dry season, a part of the land can be cultivated with crops other than rice. The soil quality, taken as a given without irrigation, get a new significance in connection with the new potential cropping opportunities. Soil conditioning becomes a new requirement in connection with crop diversification in areas that are not immediately suited for crops other than rice. Land becomes an even more precious production factor when irrigation is available, as reflected by a higher price. This makes sense, because of the higher revenue that can be generated, but it also imposes a pressure on the land ownership in case of social shocks, such as failed crops or illness in the family, where households risk to lose their land and turn to sharecropping. This is a visible tendency in newly irrigated areas. The need for supplementary occupations remains, one reason being the moderate income generated from rice cultivation. Households that combine paddy cultivation and livestock will typically earn more from the latter. Cattle and buffaloes can feed on marginal lands unsuited for cultivation, and on by-products such as straw, husk and bran. They provide manure, and draft animals can generate a cash income from transport and ploughings. Further, cattle and buffaloes provide capital for emergencies (such as medical treatment costs in case of illness in the family). The agricultural value generation A second annual crop will highly benefit from more external inputs seeds and fertilizer- and will in turn supply much more rice to the market, considering that a substantial part of the first crop from a small land holding is consumed by the household. This amplifies the value (and livelihoods) generated before and after the cultivation hopefully to the benefit of the farmers as well as society as a whole. 3. Traditional gender roles There are some traditions in connection with the task allocation between the household members. These traditions are not strictly observed, however, and all hands are at work during busy periods. 4. Trends Traditional paddy cultivation is developing in response to challenges, such as for example: †¢ A stronger market demand for crops other than rice including vegetables and biofuel crops, as well as a stronger demand for meat; †¢ a stronger competition for raw water in the dry season, related to development of irrigation infrastructure and intensified cultivation; and/or †¢ a stronger exposure to competition, related to improved transport infrastructure, porous borders, and regional and international promotion of lower trade barriers. Also, inevitably, modern lifestyles will reach even remote, traditional farming households. A cash income is needed for clothes and kerosene (or electricity where available), and every household strives to achieve a TV, a hand phone, and a motorbike. In many cases, this requires paid off-farm employment by one or several household members typically young adults, who migrate to the towns in search of work. III. Quality a. Milling and reprocessing plants Milling and reprocessing plants are being upgraded with high capacity and modern technology to ensure quality of rice. The global milled rice trade in 2010 has been estimated at around 31. 3 million tons, compared to 29. 7 million tons in 2009. However, the demand for the import of medium and low-quality milled rice has been on the increase in Asia, due to the weather problems in the Philippines, crops failure and reduced subsidy on fertilizers in Indonesia, as well as the requirement by some countries in the region to fill in reserve stock. It is estimated that milled rice trade in Asia may reach 14. 5 million tons in 2010, and at the same time, the milled rice price may increase and fluctuate. Overall, the regional and global milled rice trade has high growth potential for the medium and long term, but there are some down-side risks, due to factors such as changes in prices resulted from changing economic and political landscape in every country across the globe. The potential for increasing milled rice trade could be attributed to factors such as population and economic growth and globalization that imply changes in lifestyle and taste in rice consumption. However, the global milled rice markets are protected and highly subsidized because of its political sensitivity and paddy rice growing tradition being important in the context of national religion and food security. Nevertheless, such developments provide an opportunity for Cambodia’s milled rice export into the global markets. Milling Rice Cambodian farmers take immense pride in having commenced construction of International standard rice mill in Cambodia. The state-of-the-art high capacity paddy-to-white rice mill in the Udon region is anticipated to be commissioned in Q3 2012 and represents the first of multi-phase investment strategy and deep-rooted commitment to the country. Significantly larger milling lines are planned for commissioning throughout 2013-2015. The complete milling operations are being designed from the ground up by world-renowned rice experts with unparalleled expertise in advanced rice milling process and technology currently used by the world’s most successful rice millers. The advanced mill design will provide immense flexibility in processing capacity enabling us to handle large scale paddy in short harvesting periods without affecting quality. All mills will be fully equipped with state of the art rice milling, grading, sortexing equipment from Japan and modern packing facilities to ensure consistent production of products to the highest standards whilst meeting the highest stringent quality and safety requirements of the national and international food and retail industries. Utilising multipass technology consisting of whitening and polishing, we can ensure efficient removal of bran and an extremely clean white appearance to the individual rice grains. Our optical sorters look at each individual grain of rice detecting shape, length and colour which guarantees uniformity and an average grain length. Reprocessing plants Until recently, Cambodian farmer didnt have access to high-quality rice seed. For years, the farmer did what most Cambodians do when it’s time to plant their fields: use leftover seed from a past harvest. But the quality of the resulting crops tended to be poor, producing rice that was often pale brown, small, and lacking in aroma. As a result, buyers and rice millers offered low prices, and his sales and income suffered. Almost of Cambodian farmer finally has access to high-quality seed. On the advice of program agronomists, since 2000 they planted a small test plot of the Phka Rumdoul variety to be used exclusively for re-planting. Phka Rumdoul is one of 10 rice varieties recommended by the Cambodian government for their high productivity, quality, and market value. Cambodian farmer harvested the test plot four months later to great success. Though the initial plot was small at 1,500 square meters, the harvest provided enough seed to plant his entire farm of five hectares next season. Program agronomists estimate that the improved seed – combined with Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries of Cambodia planting methods – will save them an estimated 70 percent on seed inputs and increase their sales by roughly 100 percent, both through increased production and higher prices when he sells. Lack of high-quality seed is a major hindrance to Cambodia’s rice industry. If the country hopes to reach the government’s target of exporting 1 million tons by 2015, Cambodian farmers must improve the quality of their product to make it more desirable to overseas markets. Increasing access to high-quality seed – in addition to good agricultural practices and improved marketing techniques, both of which Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries of Cambodia is addressing – is crucial to this happening. About 5,352 rice Cambodian farmer receiving technical assistance from Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries of Cambodia, a number that will grow to 30,000 over the life of the program. They have no doubt that Phka Rumdoul can find a market outside of Cambodia. â€Å"These seeds are high quality. You can tell just by looking,† they said one recent afternoon, sifting the grain through his fingers. â€Å"With good seeds and Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries of Cambodia techniques, I’m confident that I can produce high-quality, tasty rice. † b. Good and fertile soil condition and fertilizer usage Farmer use limited chemical fertilizer and natural fertilizers to its actuality: produce high yield and good quality paddy and good tasted rice. Fertile soil condition At the time of writing this report there were no data available on the degree of erosion in Cambodia. But because of the high vulnerability of soils to erosion in Cambodia and the accumulated impact on agriculture and the environment, attention urgently needs be given to the problem. That need is underscored by the following facts: Some 63 per cent of Cambodia’s forests are located in mountainous watershed areas (Ministry of Environment, 1994), much of which has been extensively logged, deforested or degraded. Loss and reduction of the vegetation cover leads to exposure of the soil to sunlight and heavy rainfall, which speeds up the decomposition rate and therefore decreases organic matter in the soil. The process also brings about changes in the physical and chemical soil structure. Consequently, the soil undergoes crusting, and the water filtration, and water and nutrient retention capacity are reduced. The end result is intensive run-off and erosion; Some provinces in Cambodia, sheet erosion can be seen as silt which has collected behind cut logs and stumps in the fields, while rill erosion occurs in some fields only three months after clearing and burning the forest for farming. When that occurs, the actual amount of top soil being lost, measured from the top of the remaining grass and tree stumps to the soil surface, is an estimated 1 to 1. 5 cm. The fact that rill erosion has already begun in some places suggests that the yearly top soil loss is very serious. Farmers have reported that yield decreases about 20-25 per cent in the second year of cultivation, and about 40-50 per cent in the third year on wards. Soil loss through erosion can be observed at coffee and hevea farms where the natural vegetation cover has been completed cleared, leaving the soil surface uncovered between the rows of young seedlings. Erosion occurs not only in the upland areas but also in the lowland areas. In practice, water run-off occurs on all land, and the top soil is lost when no protective and conservation measures are in place. In Cambodia, however, few people understand that erosion is a serious problem in the rain fed lowland areas. In addition, population pressure in the rain fed lowlands is triggering a chain of events which will lead to intensive run-off, erosion and a reduction in the groundwater recharge. Those events include: Excessive collection of fuelwood from woodland and forest areas; Overstocking and overgrazing (although the number of animals is increasing, the fodder supply is decreasing); Increased run-off of water from rice fields. Because dikes in some areas, for example, in Svay Rieng, are not high enough to contain rainwater, the run-off contains a great of nutrient. Fertilizer usage The average rice yields in Cambodia over the past five years have been relatively constant, varying between 1. 2 and 1. tons/ha in the monsoon season and 2. 5 to 2. 7 tons/ha in the dry season. During 1995/ 96 a considerable increase in rice yield was recorded: 1. 64 tons/ha in the monsoon season and 3. 0 tons/ha in the dry season (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1995). That rise in yield has b een linked to good weather conditions, increased use of fertilizer and the expanding cultivation of high-yielding varieties in the dry season1 . For other important secondary crops the yield has remained relatively constant. The average yield of cassava is 6. 61 tons/ha, sweet potatoes 4. 16 tons/ha, mung beans 0. 78 tons/ha, sugar cane 27. 29 tons/ha and soybean 1. 7 tons/ha (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1995). Soil fertility depends on the agro-ecosystem. There are four important rice agro-ecosystems in Cambodia: rainfed lowland rice; rainfed upland farming; deep-water or floating rice; and dry-season (mostly flood recession) rice. While declining soil fertility is increasingly affecting the rainfed lowland agro-ecosystem, the soil fertility in the other systems can be restored through yearly siltation or through the clearing of forest areas. Unfortunately, the rainfed lowland agro-ecosystem is the most important in Cambodia because that area covers about 85 pe r cent of the cultivated area of the country. Rice in that ecosystem is commonly grown on Ultisols and Alfisols (Reyes and others, 1995). Those soils, especially Ultisols which comprise the most common rainfed lowland soil, are sandy, acidic, extremely infertile and low in organic carbon and cation exchange capacity. The rainfed lowland areas are badly degraded, especially where land settlement has continuously occurred over hundreds of years (for example, Oudong in Kampong Speu province, and Bati in Takeo province). In those areas, the soils are very sandy and the top soil has been seriously depleted or eroded. IV. Price, Tax-free and Market of Cambodian rice a. Cambodian rice price in the market Cambodian rice’s price is competitive, especially fragrant rice. Cambodian milled rice is becoming more popular throughout Asia, particularly in Malaysia, which is the number one importer of milled rice from the Kingdom. The price of Cambodian paddy rice is 30% to 40% cheaper than its neighbors Thailand and Vietnam. This low profit margin is a competitive advantage but unofficial fees, high transportation costs and high processing costs make this less significant. Exporting paddy rice is a lost. If processed domestically, some byproducts such as broken rice, husk and bran can be used as important inputs for aquaculture and animal breeding that enable farmers to earn extra income. With more investment in modern rice mill facilities, Cambodia can increase its production of quality milled rice for the growing international market and boost the reputation and international recognition of the Cambodian milled rice standards. In this connection, the Royal Government must address the following issues to increase domestic value-added: High electricity price Electricity represents 25% of the total processing costs. This fades Cambodia’s competitive advantage and the situation can be worse taking into account high and volatile oil price. High energy price is an obstacle to the expansion of the irrigation systems. In the low land Mekong plain, petroleum products are used to pump water into irrigation canals. Therefore, high energy prices limit the ability of farmers to plant two paddy crops a year and to increase yields. For instance, urban dwellers pay 18 20 cents per kWh, while those living in the rural areas are forced to pay up to 30 90 cents, compared to 10 cents in Vietnam. Unreliable supply and high electricity price force rice mills to use their own diesel generators which cost them 12. 60 dollars or 2. 2% per ton of rice, compared to 23. 38 dollars or 4. 1% per ton if electricity is used instead. High transportation cost Poor transport infrastructures such as roads, railways, warehouses, and handling equipment increase rice price. To transport one ton of rice on 100-km road, Cambodian farmers must spend 15 dollars, while this costs only 4 dollars and 7. dollars in Thailand and Vietnam respectively. Moreover, the number of handling equipment and port-nearby warehouses are not adequate, a major challenge for rice export especially during rainy season. Lack of access to and high cost of credit Lack of access to and high cost of credit decrease domestic value-added and hinder milled rice expor t. Limited access to credit, both for working capital and investment outlays, represents an obstacle for rice millers to stockpile paddy rice and modernize their processing machineries. However, given the sound and vibrant banking system and a large amount of available credit lines, the capital and the costs of financing should not be a problem. The problem is that bank intermediaries do not clearly understand the risks and the expected returns from agriculture investments, as the majority of bankers believe that agriculture is a high risk and low return sector. Moreover, lack of borrowers’ financial information and records make it more difficult for the banks to assess the repayment capacity and the status of the borrowers. b. Tax-Free for Cambodian rice export Nowadays, Cambodian rice can export to some countries in the world is tax? free, e. g. , the EU Countries, Russia and China. However, the Ministry of Economy and Finance has issued a prakas that will exempt rice producers from a 1 per cent tax in a bid to stimulate rice production and exports. The prakas, or edict – dated October 11 and signed by Minister of Economy and Finance – rescinds the tax on rice production and milled rice sales for three years. The move comes as the Cambodian government attempts to close in on its goal of exporting 1 million tonnes of milled rice by 2015. President of Loran Import-Export Company, said was not aware of the prakas, but added that the tax relief would help the countrys rice exports as soon as it was implemented. Rice exporters have long insisted that Cambodia remove domestic rice production taxes, Minister said. Thailand and Vietnam do not have such taxes, and the removal of the tax would put Cambodia on a more equal playing field, he said. It would encourage exporters, including me, to be more motivated to export. General director of Rural Development Bank, said he was not sure of the significance of the prakas yet but he supported the ministrys attempt to push milled rice production. The ministry had tried to facilitate milled rice production very much. They have pushed hard for tax exemption of export,. As a relatively new player in the milled rice market, Cambodia faces a steep learning curve. However, with a surplus of 3. 5 million tons of paddy rice (equivalent to 2 million tons of milled rice), Cambodia has the potential to soon be among the top five milled rice exporters in the world. More importantly, growth in the agricultural sector will translate into more economic opportunities for Cambodia’s vast rural population. While not a silver bullet, the success of the rice sector is an exciting and potentially crucial driver in Cambodia’s prosperous and equitable development. c. Market Milled rice market is heavily protected and import procedures vary from one country to another. As Cambodia is a new player in milled rice market, it must face a steep learning curve and improve its export capacity to penetrate the international market. According to data from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Malaysia imported over 7,000 tonnes of a total 25,700 tonnes exported. Poland is the second-largest importer, importing 5,880 tonnes in the first month of the year, and France the third largest, importing over 4,300 tonnes. The of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and director of the single-window secretariat for facilitating milled rice exports, said though Malaysia ranked highest for milled rice exports, Cambodia could further capitalist on Malaysian demand for fragrant milled rice. Cambodia needs to diversify its exports to better take advantage of the Malaysian market, Vanhorn added. But Cambodia also still faces challenges in managing the use of different seeds grown in different areas, adding that officials could not always control the quantity of these unspecified seeds â€Å"According to these figures, we hope we reach our target, but anything can happen in the future,† Minister said, adding that â€Å"rice exports can be affected by many other factors†. The Asian market is huge for rice exporters, with Malaysia importing from Thailand and Vietnam as well. Malaysia imports a lot of rice to supply its market demand from Thailand and Vietnam, and now they also turn to Cambodia because of competitive prices. Cambodia announced two major bilateral trade agreements last month, with the Philippines and Thailand, that are expected to further expand the country’s rice export sector. Over the last few years, Cambodia has emerged as a major rice exporter in the region, due in large part to the Royal Government of Cambodia’s recent expansion of its agricultural sector. Agriculture, led by rice farming, contributes to roughly a third of the country’s GDP and has immense potential for strengthening Cambodia’s economic growth, accelerating poverty reduction, and improving the living standard of its citizens. As part of this agenda, in 2010, the RGC adopted a new Policy Paper on Paddy Production and Rice Export, better known as the Rice Policy, to promote diversification of Cambodia’s economic sectors by catalyzing growth in paddy rice production and milled rice export to match the growth seen in the garment and service sectors. In his keynote address at the policy’s launch, Prime Minister said: â€Å"The policy aims to ensure that we grab the rare opportunity to develop Cambodia in the post global financial and economic cataclysm. † If Cambodia’s rice export sector were to reach its full potential, it could produce 3 million tons of milled rice, with the total export value amounting to $2. 1 billion (approximately 20% of the GDP) and an estimated additional $600 million (approximately 5% of the GDP) to the national economy. It would also boost employment and income for agricultural farmers who make up more than 70 percent of the population living in rural area s. To better understand the bottlenecks in the rice sector, The Asia Foundation, in partnership with the AusAID-funded program, â€Å"Cambodia Agricultural Value Chain† (CAVAC), hosted a series of consultative forums last year in three provinces – Kampong Thom, Kampot, and Takeo – with stakeholders from the private sector (farmers, seed producers, agro-business owners, exporters) and the public sector (Ministries of Agriculture, Commerce, and Water Resources Management, provincial governors, provincial departments of line ministries, and local authorities). Approximately 370 participants attended the workshops and discussed how to create business-friendly environments (i. e. competitiveness and productivity, access to finance, access to markets), and the technical aspects of rice production (use of fertilizers and insecticides, seed categories, and availability of water sources). The insights were frank and eye-opening. Although the challenges are significant, the o pportunities for the sector are greater. Secretary of State for the Ministry of Economy and Finance, optimistically predicted that the RGC can achieve its target for milled rice: â€Å"With regards to RGC’s rice export target in 2015, we may achieve up to 80 percent of the 1 million tons planned. This should include the milled rice to Vietnamese, Thai, and non-EU markets. † Implementing a strategic framework like the Rice Policy is just the beginning. To increase the paddy rice production to meet market demand and promote the export of milled rice, the government must initiate and support a host of reforms in partnership with the private sector. For instance, to solve the issue of credit shortages for buying and processing paddy rice, the government can provide incentives to commercial banks to increase the loan portfolio for agriculture. At the end of the day, the RGC must keep the farmers themselves in mind. Introducing new technologies or improving agricultural practices can only go so far if they are not accepted and adopted by farmers. Donors and NGOs can play a pivotal role in providing support and facilitating the successful implementation of new policies and projects aimed at improving the agricultural value chain. V. Conclusion Though the current global milled rice market is highly protected, Cambodia is blessed with opportunity to export milled rice in the future thank to the increase in domestic paddy rice production and the potential in the world milled rice trade. So far, the performance of agriculture is outstanding especially in terms of productivity improvement and diversification, due to steadfast efforts of the Royal Government and all stakeholders including the participation of farmers. Rice will mainly mean the stunning landscapes of rice fields, yellow at harvest time, bright and liquid during the rainy season, with shades of green meanwhile. But to a Cambodian consumer and to a Cambodian farmer, as well as to their Government (and to the French economist), rice is the staple crop, a possible â€Å"white gold† as the Prime Minister once put it, and a major part of a poverty reduction strategy. Through, the Prime Minister launched a â€Å"policy paper on the promotion of paddy production and rice exports†. This is a good and promising example of a cluster approach to Cambodias growth strategy. Cambodia is an important but still small rice exporter. Cambodia has been an exporter of rice since 2004, but a large part of the exports was unprocessed (paddy) or even smuggled through the border. Yet Cambodia has abundant land and sits in a region that is both fertile for and in high demand of rice. So far the potential comparative advantage for rice was diluted by various costs, official (e. g. electricity) or unofficial (e. g. llegal check points). Poor coordination of public and private actors was also undermining the potential. For instance weak land titling systems and weak sanitary controls were a constraint that led to limited access to finance, itself contributing to limited value addition. However the significant increase in price in 2008 and again a rebound in the past few weeks has drastically changed the economics of the sector. The policy includes a range of actions, from helping farmers to organize in associations and use better seeds, to improving irrigation systems, developing certification systems, strengthening logistics, and facilitating access to finance. Although I did not get a chance to consult Paul the Octopus as my colleague in Thailand did, the policy makes a strong case for the rapid development of rice exports in Cambodia. Potentiality of Cambodian rice, Cambodia has great potentialities and prospects in paddy and rice production promotion for the supply. Cambodia will be able to produce large quantity of paddy in response to the increasing demand of the world markets. In the future, Cambodia necessarily need to export milled rice in large quantity rather than selling as paddy rice. In fact, high growth in agricultural sector will benefit most Cambodian people who are farmers with their living standard improved. Thus, the Royal Government is committed to promoting paddy rice production and removing all constraints to milled rice export from Cambodia. Indeed, the success of this policy will depend on actual implementation; and the task is complex and hard to achieve, yet it really requires cooperation, coordination and strong commitment especially by way of improving the leadership and management of all concerned ministries/agencies and stakeholders. The new policy recognizes this new environment and promotes: coordination of various actors along the value chain, from the rice fields to the export market; shift from production increase to commercial agriculture; and Organic rice should be promoted country wide Link all producer group into cluster and union Farmers should involved in this industry and form themselves into network Local and national authority support the industry NGO should provide more capacity building training related to value added Government should re-check the policy of land investment ( esp. land concession) Government should rehabilitate the existing irrigation system and build the new ones where the re is lack of irrigation system Government should facilitate to find the loan or provide loan to farmers with low interest rate to ensure that farmers will have enough financial resource to invest in this industry. Both government and NGO must try to look for and expand the market for organic rice products. Recognition of the leading role of the private sector and the critical facilitating role of the State. The Royal Government is strongly convinced that all ministries/agencies of the Royal Government and other stakeholders, including the private sector and development partners, and particularly Cambodian farmers across the country, will join hands in pursuing this mission to bring about development, progress, and prosperity to the Kingdom of Cambodia. Reference 1. Cosslett, Tuyet L. The Economy. Cambodia: A Country Study (Russell R. Ross, editor) Library of Congress Federal Research Division (December 1987) 2. Cambodian Environment Management Project, 1996. Summary report of Phnom Penh and provincial working group meetings on pesticide information and education (Ministry of Environment). 3. Dr. Jan-Peter Mund [[emailprotected] com] is working as Professor at the University of Eberswalde GIS and Remote Sensing and serves as an advisor to the UN-Water Programme at the United Nations University in Bonn. From 2007-2010 he was a Senior Researcher at the German Aerospace Center (DLR). 4. Cambodia Must Up its Game in Rice Exports, Khut Inserey is The Asia Foundation’s senior program officer in Cambodia. He can be reached at [emailprotected] org. 5. Policy Document on Promotion of Paddy Rice Production and Export of Milled Rice, Royal Government of Cambodia, 2010. 6. Abrar, S. , O. Morrissey and T. Rayner. 2004. Crop-level supply response by agro-climatic region in Ethiopia. Journal of Agricultural Economics 55(2): 289–311. 7. ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2008. Food prices and inflation in developing Asia: Is poverty reduction coming to an end? Special report. Manila, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. 8. ACI (Agrifood Consulting International) and CamConsult. 2006. Cambodia agriculture sector diagnostic report. Diagnostic study, phase 1 of design. Agricultural Program, Cambodia, December 2007. Program concept document final report, prepared for AusAID. Bethesda, Maryland: Agrifood Consulting International. 9. Albayrak, N. 1998. Wheat supply response: Some evidence on aggregation issues. Development Policy Review 16: 241–263. 10. Arulpagasam, J. , F. Goletti, T. M. Atinc, and V. Songwe. 2003. â€Å"Trade in sectors important to the poor: Rice in Cambodia and Vietnam and Cashmere in Mongolia. † In K. Krumm and H. Kharas (ed. East Asia Integrates: A Trade Policy Agenda for Shared Growth. Washington D. C. : World Bank. 11. Ball, V. E. , et al. 2003. Modeling supply response in a multiproduct framework revisited: The nexus of empirics and economics. Paper presented at â€Å"The American Agricultural Economics Association Annua l Meeting. † July 26-30, Montreal, Canada. 12. Bogahawatte, C. 1983. Simulating the impact of changes in wheat flour imports and world price of rice on the supply and demand for rice in Sri Lanka. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics. 13. CDRI (Cambodia Development Resource Institute). 2008. Impact of high food prices in Cambodia. Survey report. Cambodia Development Resource Institute: Phnom Penh, Cambodia 14. Choeun, H. , Y. Godo, and Y. Hayami. 2006. The economics and politics of rice export taxation in Thailand: A historical simulation analysis, 1950–1985. Journal of Asian Economics 17: 103–125. 15. Coleman, D. R. 1983. Review of the arts of supply response analysis. Review of Marketing and Agricultural Economics 51(3): 201–230. 16. CSES (Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey). 2004 and 2007. National Institute of Statistics, Cambodia. 17. Danh, V. T. 2007. The role of prices in stimulating Vietnamese rice economy. Centre for ASEAN Studies discussion paper no. 52. University of Antwerp: The Netherlands. 8. Deb, S. 2005. Terms of trade and supply response of Indian agriculture: Analysis in cointegration framework. Indian Economic Review 40(1): 65–92. 19. Fan, S. 2008, Public Expenditure, Growth and Poverty in Developing Countries: Issues, Methods and Findings. Baltimore, Maryland: John Hopkins Publicat ions. 20. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2008. FAOSTAT. Rome, Italy. . Last accessed June 2008. 21. Flinn, J. C. , K. P. Kalirajan, and L. L. Castillo. 1982. Supply responsiveness of rice farmers in Laguna, Philippines. Australian Journal of Agricultural Economics 26(1): 39–48. 22. Grethe, H. , and G. Weber. 2005. Comparing supply systems derived from a symmetric generalized McFadden profit function to isoelastic supply systems: Costs and benefits. Paper presented at â€Å"The EAAE seminar for Modeling Agricultural Policies: State of the Art and New Challenges. † February 3-5, Parma, Italy. 23. Gunawardana, P. J. , and E. A. Oczkowski. 1992. Government policies and agricultural supply response: Paddy in Sri Lanka. Journal of Agricultural Economics 43(2): 231–242. 24. Hattink, W. , N. Heerink, and G. Thijssen. 1998. Supply response of cocoa in Ghana: A farm-level profit function analysis. Journal of African Economies 7(3): 424–444. 25. Heltberg, R. , and F. Tarp. 2002. Agricultural supply response and poverty in Mozambique. Food Policy 27: 103–124.

The Cyclic Relationship Between Culture And Technology :: Environment Environmental Pollution Preservation

Trying to determine the effect of culture on technology is a difficult task. This is due to the cyclic nature of the relationship between culture and technology. Working with the general notion of culture (1), it is easy to see why the task of analyzing the effect of culture on technology is hard. This is because technology itself is part of this definition of culture, â€Å"all other products of human work and thought† (2). In a sense, we are trying to find the effect of culture on culture itself, which initially sounds strange. However, considering technology as one of the venues that a given culture utilizes to transform itself, the challenge to examine the effect of culture on technology can be narrowed down to the investigation of the cyclic relationship between culture and technology. Thus, this paper discusses, what we will label, ‘technology-induced cultures’ and ‘culture-induced technologies’, in order to show the feedback loop between cultur e and technology. The class readings provide several instances of how technology affects and transforms its encompassing culture (i.e. the culture that was responsible for bringing forth the very same technology). One such technology is agriculture. The hunting and gathering way of life was already being saturated when the world population was about 4 million. With human population reaching 200 million by 200 B.C., it would have been difficult, if not impossible, to survive by just gathering and hunting. (3). Even though it is hard to claim that early man consciously pursued agriculture as the solution to this problem, it is uncontested that the hunter-gatherer society is the culture that was responsible for the invention of agriculture, as Ehrlich points out, â€Å"agriculture was thus invented gradually, piecemeal, and quite probably sometime reluctantly as groups changed time-honored lifestyles†(Ehrlich 15/26). The effect of this technology on the hunter-gatherer society was phenomenal, as it â€Å"put humanity on the road to sociopolitical complexity†(Ehrlich 17/26). The constant mobility as well as the scarce resources involved with the hunting and gathering way of life did not allow for the development of a complex society, as Ehrlich explicitly mentions, â€Å"Without the ensuring agricultural revolution and the sedentary life and divisions of labor it eventually made possible, cultural evolution could never have produced our complex modern civilization. Without farming, which freed some people of the chore of wrestling nourishment from the environment, there would be no cities, no states, no science, and no mayors†(4).

Reviewing the Necessity of Punishment Essay -- Essays Papers

Reviewing the Necessity of Punishment "From 'On Crimes and Punishment'" by Cesare Beccaria is an excerpt from On Crimes and Punishment. In his address to the public, particularly those in political positions, Beccaria discusses the way we as a society choose to carry out the law. What he calls "useless severity" of punishment encompasses his thoughts on extremes such as capital punishment and the cruelties that we allow our government to inflict upon its own people in a failing attempt to bring order to our society. The death penalty has plagued our society for centuries, perhaps beginning with the idea of human sacrifice that has been turned around as a cycle of never-ending death and cruelty. The writing techniques employed by Beccaria effectively convince his audience that our forms of criminal punishment are nothing more than an unnecessary bad habit. In a debate, one can easily bring their opposition to silence by asking them a question that they cannot answer. Beccaria uses this method to his advantage in his work. He asks a series of questions that can't be easily answered. The lazy reader would much rather have faith in Beccaria's beliefs than sort through the questions and find answers themselves. He asks, "What is the best way of preventing crimes? Are the same penalties always equally useful? What influence have they on social custom?" (64). These questions only lead to more questions. The reader may be able to ponder situations that both promote and discredit any solutions they may have for these questions, leaving them more confused about their own stance. The reader is so wrapped up in trying to answer these questions, that they don't realize that Beccaria himself never answers them. This sly technique encoura... ...lthough the work was written at a time when numerous crimes were punishable by death, Beccaria's work has exceeded his time because his convincing work can still provoke thought on current forms of punishment. His manipulation through questions, lists, and especially word choice effectively convince the reader to give more thought about his position, if not change their own opinion altogether. Beccaria not only gives reasons to oppose extreme punishment, but his gives a solution: "the surest but most difficult way of preventing crime is to improve education(70). So in the end, the reader not only has his propositions to think about, but they are left the idea of education being the end to crime. Works Cited Beccaria, Cesare. "From 'On Crimes and Punishment."' In R. Cosgrove (Ed.), Readings in Western Civilizations (pp. 63-71). Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing.

Human Trafficking Essay

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The Drylanders video report essays

The Drylanders video report essays The Drylanders The film The Drylanders takes a look at the ups and downs of early farm life in Saskatchewan. This film shows us a family moving from the city to the prairies to start a new life. It shows the great harvest of 1927 and how lack of rain can affect the whole prairie life style. Most of all it illustrates how hard it was to adjust to these new lands. The film The Drylanders was a first-rate look at the hardships and the excellent times farmers had in the early 1900s. The harvest was a great time for everyone. The farmers would go out with their families and collect the wheat and crops from the fields. This was the main source of income for the prairie farmers. In the film it shows a great example of a wonderful harvest. It was the harvest of 1927, everything went well for the farmers on the prairie. There were more then enough crops for the whole family. Families were even able to buy cars due to all the inventory (crops). The film also explains how hard the times were when there were droughts. It teaches us how dead the parries were. People were angry and very depressed. Since they had no source of income they had to get their food from food banks. The film also portrays how hard it was to start a life on the prairies. Before they even came there were stories how children would die in the cold winters. The first harvest did not go well, it was ruined by hail a hail storm. This really hurt the families ego. Although there were good and bad times the drylanders were able to make it through both with smiles and with tears. If it were not for these brave men or women who labored over this land who knows what kind province Saskatchewan would have evolved into today. ...

Average ACT Score for Colleges What You Need to Get In

Average ACT Score for Colleges What You Need to Get In SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you're preparing for the ACT or you've taken the ACT, you probably want to know what score you need to get into college. What's an average ACT score for colleges? Do you need to do better than average to go to college? In this article, I'll explain average ACT scores and what they mean for you. Find out how to calculate the score you need to give yourself the best chance to get into your dream school. What Is the Average ACT Score for Colleges? The national average ACT scores stay roughly the same from year to year. Generally, the average is released for high school seniors each year. For the class of 2015, these were the average section and composite scores: Composite: 21.0 English: 20.4 Reading: 21.4 Math: 20.8 Science: 20.9 Because these averages are for all high school seniors who took the test and not for college-bound seniors, these scores may not be incredibly helpful for you. Some states require all students, even those who don't plan to attend college, to take the ACT. However, when you apply to college, you're being compared against other applicants, not against all high school seniors. How to Find the Average ACT Score of a Specific College While you may want to know how your ACT score stacks up against others who take the test, what really matters is how your score compares to other applicants of the colleges you apply to. Even though a 29 is well above the national average, a 29 is significantly below the average ACT for Ivy League schools. Therefore, even though a 29 is a very good score, you’ll be at a competitive disadvantage if you apply to any Ivy League school with a 29. On the other hand, if you apply to Cal States, a 29 will exceed the average of any California State University campus, and you’ll improve your chances of getting accepted if you that's your composite score. You can find the average ACT scores of different colleges in the PrepScholar database by googling â€Å"prepscholar (name of school) ACT† to find a school’s profile. On the school profile, you can see its average GPA, average ACT score, and acceptance rate. For example, according to the PrepScholar database, the average ACT score forBerkeley is a 30. Also, Berkeley's average GPA is a 3.86 and its acceptance rate is 18%. The University of Oklahoma has an average ACT score of 26, an average GPA of 3.59, and an acceptance rate of 80%. What Does the Average ACT Score of a College Mean to You? If you want to get into a certain school, your ACT score should be comparable to the average score for the college’s admits. To give yourself the best chance of gaining admission to a specific school, we recommend that your goal should be to get at least a 75th percentile score for that college. The 75th percentile score for Berkeley is a 33; therefore, if you want to go to Berkeley, your target score should be a 33. Because Berkeley's acceptance rate is only around 18%, you should try to surpass its average score to have a decent shot of gaining admission. Similiarly, the 75th percentile score for Oklahoma is a 29. If you dream of becoming a Sooner, you should shoot for a 29 on your ACT. Furthermore, because a certain number of spots will go to athletes, legacies, and children of big-time donors, your qualifications may have to be better than average if you aren’t in one of these categories. What If You Don’t Get Your Target Score? If you don’t get the 75th percentile score or even the average ACT score for a specific college, that doesn’t necessarily mean that you have no chance of getting accepted. However, if you still have time to reach your target score, it’s probably in your best interest tostudy and attempt toimprove your score. You can compensate for lower test scores with a higher GPA. Generally, schools place a greater emphasis on your transcript than on your standardized test scores. Also, on each school’s profile in the PrepScholar database, you can use our admissions calculator by entering your GPA and ACT score to get an estimate of your chances of gaining admission to that school. Furthermore, keep in mind that colleges tend to use holistic admissions, meaning that everything is considered when colleges determine whom to admit. They’ll evaluate your transcript, test scores, extracurricular activities, recommendations, application essays, and any other factors that admissions officers deem relevant. If you've faced any significant obstacles or you're from an impoverished background, colleges will also take this into account. Just because you don’t reach your target score doesn’t necessarily mean that you have no chance to get admitted. However, while most colleges don't claim to have a minimum ACT score, if your score isn't close to the average score for a particular school, you may have virtually no chance of getting accepted. Even if you have great grades and stellar extracurricular accomplishments, you probably don't have a realistic shot of getting into Princeton if your ACT score is lower than 20. While standardized tests aren't the only determining factor in college admissions, most colleges use the ACT to ensure that you're capable of succeeding academically. Your ACT score matters! What's Next? Now that you know more about average ACT scores, learn more about the scores you need to get into the Ivy League and top colleges. If you've already taken the ACT, find out if you should retake the test. Finally, not only do we have information about the average ACT scores for colleges, but also we've given you the average ACT scores by state. Want to improve your ACT score by 4+ points? Download our free guide to the top 5 strategies you need in your prep to improve your ACT score dramatically.

Compare and Contrast between Socialism and Capitalism

Compare and Contrast between Socialism and Capitalism Introduction Socialism has been regarded as kind of economy which relocates its means of production from individual ownership to state ownership and communal ownership.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Compare and Contrast between Socialism and Capitalism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A state that operates under socialism possesses all the means of production and also supervises them. This system has been believed to construct a different egalitarian system which is founded on the values of cooperation and solidarity. However, this further relies on another feature where human beings are viewed as capable of interacting and cooperating with one another (Newman 3). Capitalism on the other hand could be reffered as a system where means of production are employed and owned by individuals. This kind of economy develops under the right of an individual who decides freely where and how they want to produce (Hunt and Laut zenheiser 5). Therefore these are two diverse systems; the following essay illustrates the differences and similarities between these two systems. Economy and Trade Marxist economists described various ideas concerning socialism and capitalism using various illustrations. According to his famous accounts, capitalist was depicted as destructive, a kind of system that is prone to crisis and administered by logic of capital. It was mostly expressed on the basis of economic laws of motion also the desire to accumulate on the capital. However, socialism denoted elimination or suppression of such logic and its fundamental drives and laws, hence created the likelihood of a rational, organized way of managing social and economic life. Marxist economists condemned capitalism because of instability and irrational outcomes of a system based on private markets and properties. Marxist noted the devastating social and economic outcomes of capitalist organizations, economic anarchy; for instance, sales seldom matched actual or expected levels of production, and the overall amount of savings planned for investments, hence affecting business cycles. Other associated crises were ineffective outcomes and uneconomical expenditures which led to starvation, unemployment, and ecological deterioration. There was social disintegration and fragmentation because of unequal distribution of power and wealth and promotion of privacy, social interests, and personal interests over public. It encouraged alienation for instance through commodity fetishism because conception of false needs was encouraged rather than satisfaction of true needs. This led to denial of genuine individual knowledge concerning themselves and also the society surrounding them (Ruccio and Amariglio 216-17).Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In contrast, socialism because of eliminating the scope of priva te markets and properties and its institution of planning, it has been represented as a system that demonstrates basic rationality and stability. Therefore, the results were fairly different; economic coordination and balance which was supervised by a central planning board and analyzed by enterprises and ministries. Furthermore, the system portrayed effective and socially beneficial expenditures which were based on coherent calculations and no profit making motive. The system created unification and social harmony because of establishment of relative equality and social and private interests which were then allowed to converge. More importantly, it promoted self realization and true needs could be articulated and the nature of social interactions was transparent and immediate. Marxist economists has also noted the degree at which capitalism has been based on individual exploitation which involves extraction of surplus value while in socialism almost all surplus was appropriated com munally or socially (Ruccio and Amariglio 216-17). Property Rights Socialism could be defined as transfer of titles of a particular property from those individuals who have invested scarcely to those who have contractually acquired them or for some different use. It could be regarded as a social system where the scarce resources or means of production which are utilized to produce consumption products are socialized or nationalized. The concept of socialization of means of production has been practiced in a number of countries such as Soviet Union and afterwards by Soviet dominated nations of Eastern Europe and various countries all over the world. If private property becomes the means of production, then one encourages differences. By eradicating private ownership everybody’s ownership means of production is equated. Every person becomes the co- owner of all the properties and this reflects every individual’s identical standing as a human being. The economic rationale of a scheme like that one is suggested to be more effective. In contrast, capitalism which concentrates on private ownership as the means of production seems to be very chaotic. It appears more of a wasteful system which is characterized by ruinous competition, duplicating efforts and lacks concerted, coordinated action. Unless the communal ownership is substituted with private then it’s possible to eradicate that waste by executing a single, coordinated comprehensive production plan. The property regulations which are assumed under the socialization policy and those which comprise the general legal principles of nations such as Russia are distinguished by two complementary attributes. First, no one possesses socialized means of production but they are owned socially.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Compare and Contrast between Socialism and Capitalism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More That means nobody or no group of people, or all of them together have the right to either obtain them or trade them and retain the receipts got from their sale confidentially. Their use is however determined by people not as the owners but as the caretakers of the things (Herman 19-22). Secondly, no individual or groups of people or all of them together has the right to engage in personal investment and form new personal means of production. They could neither invest through changing the existing, nonproductively already used resources into productive ones, by pooling resources with the rest of the people, by original saving, nor by a combination of those techniques. Investment could be done only by caretakers, not for private profit but for the benefit of the community. In an economy such as capitalism which is founded on private ownership, owners resolve what to do with the means of production. However in socialized economy such owners never exist hence it cannot happen and the major problem is what to do with the means of production. The difference between socialized property economy and private one is the concept of whose will prevails if there are conflicts. In capitalism somebody must be there to control and others who do not control and therefore real difference exists among people. In this case, the problem on whose opinion prevails is determined by original contract and appropriation. Similarly, in socialism real difference exists between noncontrollers and controllers under some occasions, the issue on whose opinion prevails is not resolved through previous contract or usership but through political means (Herman 19-22). Therefore, capitalist differs from socialism by replacing public ownership with private ownership. Public ownership caused excessive depersonalization of the property. Neither losses nor gains had exclusive and direct effects on a particular individual, responsibility normally was enormously low. To some extent private property still existed in socialism ( Kornai 87). Nevertheless, it seems to be scarce hence it does not cover the means of production.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More If the property could not be transferred to the state, communal properties like agricultural cooperatives or small businesses such as handicraft were introduced. This shows theoretically the membership is voluntary and such ownership was not affected legally. Hence collective ownership was regarded as an intermediary stage which would be replaced by the state ownership finally. On the other hand, in capitalism under property right it is evident there was division of labor, making of profit and uneven distribution of wealth and massive involvement in economic exchanges. That was portrayed as the only means of maintaining an individual existence which signify a great need for steady rules and enforcement system. That is mainly essential for property rights, and their transfer and their protection. Coordination Another disparity between socialism and capitalism is depicted on how coordination is accomplished. Rather than letting people do what they desire, capitalism organizes the acti ons by restraining people to respect the earlier user ownership. Capitalist is distinguished by decentralist and unstructured coordination instead of centralized management and steering. This is clearly observed in disincentives and incentives which are not set politically. In such society, distribution of resources occurs through the market. On the other hand, in socialism rather than allowing people do what they wish, it manages individual plans through superimposing on an individual’s plan or the plan of a group and that of varying individual or group in spite of prior ownership and other mutual exchange contracts (Herman 23). This depicts central planning where the state owns almost all production facilities. The required inputs for production and preliminary products are determined then organized, political priorities are always considered. The consumer and producer demand are anticipated while correct exchange relations are resolved by the setting of the price. However, this is costly and huge task to be carried by the administration which tends to be more complicated and develops technologically according to the nation economy. Security Capitalists system argues that the major role of the government is to safe guard its citizens from deception or various forms of corruption. They argue that force is the security of individual’s rights. To achieve that, the government employs police force that is in charge of security at their homes and military group which guards any exterior attack while the court ensures that local disputes between the residents are cleared. In addition, they believe that stirring force could only lead to violation of rights; hence the government simply uses force in case one initiates it. In this society, anyone could begin any type of business one desires. This is because the security of monopolies does not operate. The main law which is plainly decreed and everybody is supposed to observe is that members of the societ y should not violate an individual’s human rights (De Soto 68). Thus they give credibility to observing individual’s rights which is supreme and freedoms are also regarded as supreme. On the other hand, socialism is a reverse; the government is centrally involved while the society manages communal properties such as cooperatives and industries. Even though, they own those properties through the government. In addition, the workers are in charge of means of production owned by the society and are invested for the well being of the whole economy but not just the wealthy individuals. In this system, the government manages the overall means of production but the members have the duty of choosing the best setting for the production, the amount to produce and which product should be produced. Those produces should also be allocated fairly to ensure everybody is satisfied. Some philosophers like Karl Marx claimed that there is possibility of capitalism being overshadowed beca use already there are some evident changes in capitalist societies which resemble socialism. They further suggested that they must look for a means to conquer capitalists’ resistance and their proposers to achieve socialism. In socialism economy, there is equal allocation of resources within its members and focuses on providing basic needs to the members to ensure equality. To make sure every member in the society benefits, the government ensures it caters for those who are needy and cannot support themselves, this is achieved through community based programs and related organizations. In addition, socialist societies are usually known because of their charitable social security systems. These include: free education, full employment, total coverage through pension system, subsidized housing, welfare for the sick, orphans and elderly and good public security depicted by low crime rates (Rudiger 14). Social Welfare For several decades the Soviet Union lived as an enormous nati onal socialist government. The Kibbutzim and Mennonites abandoned the Soviet Union and settled in capitalist nations like Israel and United States. The Amish live peacefully under capitalism since the community reaps together and sows together. Because they are not buying food and paying wages, there is fairly little taxable business taking place. Furthermore, the community could also work jointly to produce goods which could be sold to neighbors surrounding the community. That enables the community to pay for things like property taxes (Gilpin 220). That indicates that the socialist society should own the means of production, but not the individuals within their society. Since socialism depends on production which belongs to the collective, then it’s very hard for a single socialist unit to exist in another socialist unit. Also in a case of a joint ownership, one of the parties must have more power over the property than the other. It is impossible for two units to have sove reignty over similar property. As a result, socialist groups like Kibbutzim and Mennonites abandoned areas such as Eastern Europe and Russia in favor of Israel and United States. Socialist society depends on willing contribution of every member of that society. In case of the less productive members within the society, that is not regarded as a problem. Nevertheless, if the most productive members in that society were able of being independent, that could be a problem. This is because if those members who are most productive depart from the collective, then the overall resources allocated to every member decreases. In case this repeatedly happens then socialism would collapse, since the only people who would remain are the less productive (Duck 2). There must be something to maintain the most productive members in the socialist country; this ensures they do not leave. For instance, majority of productive Mennonites are kept within their society by the religion or the Jews in their K ibbutzim. Patriotism might also maintain majority of productive members in a socialist country. Nonetheless, the tie of religion is stronger than that of patriotism. Because socialism cannot permit most of its members who are productive to depart from the collective, then it is very hard for capitalist to exist within socialism. This is evident because socialist government always takes production from those people who are most productive and then reallocate it to the less productive people. If that was done against the desires of the people, subsequently they will harbor bitterness against socialist government. As a result, the tie of patriotism will grow weaker (Duck 2). Government Role on Social Life Critics argue that a government which is capable of providing everything is also powerful enough to take away everything. This happened to German National Socialists and Communist Russia. Nevertheless, government with socialist system does not withhold social welfare but the power it has over the economy of that nation leaves the citizens vulnerable to the dictators (Newman 39). They argue that in a nation where Congress are not permitted to pass law which focuses on establishment of religion, then government social programs seems to be corrupt and mostly tend to be agnostic. As a result, such social programs seem to prohibit religion which is a free exercise or others encourage atheism. There are many well documented government education programs which prohibit prayer and encourage atheism. Socialist governments appear to atheism. The morality of Atheist is only a manifestation of the light reflected by biblical morality. Without the guiding light from the bible, atheist morality is likely to go off course. Finally, it degrades to level where immoral behaviors such as genocide turn to be acceptable. Critics further argue that socialism should not be allowed to exist in a government and socialist groups ought to support capitalism in their government since in ca pitalism they can freely exist. They believe that the framework of capitalism leads to efficient socialism, this is because it allows people to embrace socialism (Duck 2-3). Prices Formation In capitalist system, prices are not determined by the state but set by interplay between demand and supply in the free markets. Nevertheless, the state could affect the prices indirectly through subsidization, taxation, restrictions of imports and in case it manages the Central Bank, through monetary policy like money supply and interest rates. Therefore, in this system coordination of transactions through prices is a distinctive feature of capitalist system (Friedman 8-13). On the other hand, in case of socialist economy channeling so much power on the prices it would require sufficient market structure; it would also challenge the structure and the state that formed such system while trying to allocate resources in the economy. In socialist economy price mechanisms were not fully eliminated, mostly it was incorporated in economic planning. This led to unofficial or multiple official price systems. This altered price system which never reflects true scarcity levels and makes consumers and companies to be price inelastic, thus they do not react adequately to increase and decrease of prices because these are meaningless. Conversely, households in classical socialist economy work under constrain due to the hard budget because their funds are limited. Thus they never respond to prices because the state controls the prices which become political relevance. As a result, the prices of services and basic goods like medical services, staple food, housing, childcare, are normally subsidized whilst the demand for luxury goods is controlled through setting high prices. As proposed by classical economic theory the consumers respond promptly, they buy extra of the subsidized goods compared to what they would purchase in market equilibrium. Market Structure In capitalist system, privat e enterprises of different sizes coexist and usually compete with those enterprises owned by the state and other forms like the cooperatives. The main feature of capitalist system appears to be free market exit and entry. Thus it’s not a static system however it operates under dynamic renewal. On the other hand, in socialist economy the seller incurs total transaction cost, seeks information on how and where to find the product, adapts to the seller’s supply through forced substitution. Therefore, the buyer bears the outcomes of uncertainty. This is opposite of capitalist economy which can be regarded as buyer’s market. In the case of seller’s market as in socialism, it’s usually a stable condition where demand constantly exceeds supply (Rudiger 11). Conclusion According to the discussion above it is evident that these two systems are quite different with a few similarities. Majorly, the socialist economy is depicted by its communal ownership as th e name suggests. The society properties are owned by everybody and there is no one entitled as the sole manager. The property rights are generally communal and the members act as caretakers of the properties. On the other hand, capitalism is distinguished by the private ownership of property. Analyzing on the prices the two systems are really diverse, under socialism the consumers are in control of the market and they bear the overall cost of market uncertainties. Moreover, they are supposed to seek where and how to use the means of production hence the name seller market. On the other hand, under capitalism it’s the reverse it’s called the buyer market since the government is in control of the means of production. One similarity is that both governments control the amount of money workers contributes thus the pension is under government management. De Soto, Hernando. The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else. New York: Rand om House, 2000. Duck, Samuel. â€Å"Comparing national socialism to capitalism, liberty, charity, and local socialism†, 2009. Web. Friedman, Milton. Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. Gilpin, Robert. Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. Hans-Hermann, Hoppe. Theory of Socialism and Capitalism. Alabama: Ludwing von Mises Institute, 2007. Hunt, E. and Lautzenheiser, Mark. History of Economic Thought: A Critical Perspective. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2011. Kornai, Janos. The Socialist System: The Political Economy of Communism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992. Newman, Michael. Socialism: a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Ruccio, David and Amariglio, Jack. Postmodern moments in modern economics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003. Rudiger, Frank. â€Å"North Korea: East Asian Socialism, Capitalism, or What?† U niversity of Vienna, 2008. Web.

Issues Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Issues - Research Paper Example The process of globalization has led large organizations towards increasing interactions with people belonging to diverse cultures, beliefs and backgrounds than it was ever before. In other words, the diversity at the workplace has made employees vulnerable to experience discriminations at the place of work. As a consequence, managers are required to identify the changes occurring at the workplace and resolve those challenges effectively for mutually benefitting both the organization and the employees engaged in carrying out the various operations within the organization (Green et al., n.d.). Issues Raised In the Article According to the selected article, it has been identified that Quebec is planning to prohibit civil servants from wearing religious costumes and certain symbols in the workplace. It has been believed that if this proposal is enforced, Qubec’s Charter of Values would ban religious symbols, including large Christian crucifixes, the Jewish yarmulke, Muslim hijab or Sikh turbans. It has been believed that such proposal is an attempt towards creating separate and unique culture and society from the rest of Canada. At the same time, strict measures are likely to be put forward for those employees breaching the legislature. It is believed that these measures will possibly seek for serious conducts resulting in firing of employees from the organization. It is forecasted that a considerable number of employees working in different sectors of Quebec province would be affected by the enactment of such legislatur

Legal Advice for Harry and Mrs.Tourniquet in Relation to the Accident Essay

Legal Advice for Harry and Mrs.Tourniquet in Relation to the Accident that Led to Employment Dismissal - Essay Example This essay declares that the main point of substantiating the school’s governor’s dismissal is negligence. However, Mrs. Tourniquet may also argue that the school had also become negligent since they had not made sure that a nurse would be available during school hours. There was negligence on the side of the school management because they were unable to make sure that pupils be given proper medical attention, when accidents occur. If Mrs. Tourniquet will use this as a defense, it does not mean that she will not be held liable, but at least the parents of the child may sue the school, and not only Mrs.Tourniquet to demand damages. Certainly, Harry or his parents may demand damages first from the school because it was their obligation to look after their child. If only there was a nurse during the time of the accident, Harry’s leg may have not been amputated, and Mrs. Tourniquet will not be provoked to do anything that is beyond her responsibility as a biology tea cher. This paper makes a conclusion that dismissing Mrs. Tourniquet does not exempt the school from the obligation of providing monetary compensation. The dismissal may not be justified by Mrs. Tourniquet’s wrongdoings, but it is a learning experience for education institutions in not ignoring the possibility of accidents taking place at any point, and at any day. To conclude, Harry may demand damages from the school. Mrs. Tourniquet is still likely to be dismissed for her negligence and misconduct.

2013 Protests in Turkey - Gezi Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

2013 Protests in Turkey - Gezi - Essay Example The main issues that could be discerned included freedom of assembly, freedom of speech and expression, freedom of the press, and the violation on secularism. The Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Zizek, on supporting the protests, noted that when considering that Turkey has always been considered a moderate Islamic state, the protest were indeed astonishing. He argues that the protests are proof that a free market does not always lead to social freedom but can exist with authoritarian politics. Basically, Zizek points out that the existence of a free market does not always mean that a democratic state exists. A country can employ a free market system but withhold sharing of power between the ruling few and the majority public. In considering the protests in Turkey, it can thus be concluded that neo-liberalism in the country led to the decline of the government’s responsibility to its people and thus leading to a very angry citizenship that reacted in the best way that they could. Democracy is an integrated political system that is based on the principle of involvement. Democracy is based on two concepts; liberty and self-government2. Liberty often referred to as freedom belongs to individuals while popular sovereignty belongs to the public as a whole. Liberty encompasses what governments are prohibited to do to their citizens, that is, curtail individual freedoms. Self-government as a property of democracy on the other hand deals in the manner with which those who govern are chosen. In this way, self-government deals with who leads while liberty sets rules that impose limits on what those who govern can do. In the past thirty years, democracy has enjoyed an extraordinary rise. Incorporating social welfare with liberty and sovereignty has led democracy to be widely popular. It has however can be noticed that most governments are unable to maintain democracy as in the case of Turkey. Markets and Democracy Free markets nurture democracy in four main ways3. It i s in these four ways that the government of Turkey failed and which led to the unrest that was witnessed in a country that was considered a promising example of change in the Islamic world. The first manner in which free markets promote democracy is free markets are founded on the principle of private property. In a free market society, governments have to uphold the right of every citizen to own property as well as protect public property. According to4, one of the main reasons that the protest spread across Turkey was that the citizens were protesting the sale of public spaces, streams, forests, urban symbols and beaches to private companies and individual investors. The plans to demolish Gezi Park to erect a shopping mall were a tipping point of the anger the citizens harbored on the privatization efforts the government was conducting. The second manner in which free markets promote democracy is that they generate wealth5. As a country acquires wealth through the free market syst em, the middle class also referred to as the social backbone of democracy, arise. In turkey, the government grew complacent and forgot about the needs of the middle class in favor of the rich and elite. The people grew frustrated when their government increasingly went out of its way to create conducive environments for big companies while slowly decreasing public spending on social welfare. The third manner in which free markets foster democracy is by creating a civil society6. This occurs where groups and organizations such as religious associations, labor unions and professional